Choosing Egypt’s most remarkable archaeological site is an impossible task. The nation brims with ancient wonders at every turn. While the Valley of the Kings and Giza’s pyramids dominate modern headlines, Saqqara deserves equal admiration. This extraordinary complex served as the burial ground for Memphis, ancient Egypt’s capital, and contains numerous spectacular pyramids and royal tombs spanning millennia.
Situated approximately 18 miles (30 kilometers) south of present-day Cairo, Saqqara stretches across an impressive 4.3 miles (7 kilometers) by 1 mile (1.5 kilometers). Though many pyramids here have deteriorated significantly—explaining why the site receives less attention than Giza or the Valley of the Kings—its historical significance remains unparalleled.
More than sixteen pharaohs constructed pyramids at Saqqara. While royal burials eventually declined at the site, it continued serving as a prestigious burial ground for nobility and a center for cult ceremonies for over 3,000 years.
Today, Saqqara is renowned for housing the Pyramid of Djoser, the world’s oldest known complete stone building complex. Designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, it also features the Imhotep Museum, providing visitors with captivating insights into ancient Egyptian daily life and culture.
Saqqara’s origins trace back to Egypt’s First Dynasty during the Bronze Age, though scholars debate whether this period commenced in the 30th or 34th century BC.
Initially, Abydos served as the primary royal burial site, while Saqqara hosted tombs of influential nobles. By the Second Dynasty (2890-2686 BC), however, pharaohs began choosing Saqqara for their own burials.
Khasekhemwy, for instance, maintained his principal tomb at Abydos but also commissioned a substantial funerary monument at Saqqara called Gisr El-Mudir. This structure ranks among Egypt’s oldest stone buildings and inspired subsequent early dynastic rulers to erect their own monuments at the site. Kings Hotepsekhemwy (or possibly Raneb) and Nynetjer both constructed impressive tombs at Saqqara.
Statue of Khasekhemwy, circa 2690 BC. He was the last pharaoh of the Second Dynasty, and the first to build a monument at the Saqqara necropolis. (Anthony Huan / CC BY SA 2.0)
The Old Kingdom (2686-2125 BC) brought fluctuating fortunes to Saqqara. King Djoser commissioned his funerary complex there during the Third Dynasty (2670-2650 BC), but Fourth Dynasty pharaohs largely selected alternative locations for their pyramids, perhaps unwilling to compete with Djoser’s masterpiece.
During the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties, Saqqara regained favor as the preferred royal necropolis. However, these later pyramids employed construction shortcuts—their cores consisted of rubble rather than solid stone blocks. Consequently, these structures have deteriorated more than their Giza counterparts.
The Pyramid of Unas took some construction shortcuts, leading to poor preservation
Despite their compromised preservation, Saqqara’s pyramids contain humanity’s earliest known pyramid texts—religious inscriptions providing guidance for the afterlife that adorned important tomb walls. Unas, the final Fifth Dynasty ruler, pioneered this tradition.
During this era, courtiers commonly received burial privileges near their pharaoh. Saqqara features clusters of private tombs surrounding the pyramid complexes of Unas and Teti, with numerous tombs constructed throughout the Old Kingdom period.
1Wooden statue of high rank official Kaaper, Old Kingdom, (around 2500 BC)
Saqqara’s crown jewel is undoubtedly the Pyramid of Djoser. This revolutionary six-tiered step pyramid, constructed in the 27th century BC by Imhotep—Djoser’s chancellor and architect—dominated the landscape then and now.
Originally standing approximately 200 feet (62 meters) tall and sheathed in polished limestone, this proto-pyramid established crucial precedents, particularly the tradition of pharaohs constructing monumental tombs. Nothing of this scale had ever been attempted. Djoser’s ability to complete such a project demonstrated Egypt’s growing power and organizational capacity, requiring labor and resources beyond the reach of earlier rulers.
The Pyramid of Djoser in Saqqara necropolis is Egypt’s oldest pyramid
Pyramid construction demanded years, and not all rulers lived to see completion. While many kings following Djoser aspired to match his step pyramid, few succeeded. Sekhemkhet’s pyramid remained unfinished—builders never progressed beyond the lowest step.
Discovered in 1951 by Zakaria Goneim, this pyramid revealed Sekhemkhet’s existence; prior to this, Djoser’s successor was unknown except for jar seals bearing his name. Though incomplete and therefore less visually striking, archaeologists believe the finished structure would have surpassed even Djoser’s pyramid in size.
Imhotep likely served as architect for both projects, attempting to outdo his previous achievement but overreaching. The unfinished structure remains buried beneath the desert sands, earning its nickname: the “Buried Pyramid.”
Sekhemkhet’s pyramid was never completed, but the plans were very grand. It’s now known as the buried pyramid. Left: Purported plans for the pyramid; Right: the rubble that remains in Saqqara (Left: GDK / CC BY SA 3.0; Right: Pottery Fan / CC BY SA 3.0)
Userkaf’s pyramid exemplifies the rubble-core construction that has led to significant deterioration. Positioned just north of Djoser’s step pyramid, it now resembles a hill more than a royal tomb.
John Shae Perring first entered the pyramid in 1839 through a looter’s tunnel discovered eight years earlier by Orazi Marucci. Misidentified for decades, the pyramid wasn’t correctly attributed until Egyptologist Cecil Firth‘s work in 1928.
Early pyramids at Saqqara necropolis like Userkaf’s pyramid provide insight into the development of pyramid construction techniques (Prof. Mortel / CC BY SA 2.0)
Userkaf’s pyramid marked a departure from earlier designs. Smaller than its predecessors—standing less than 160 feet (50 meters) high with sides measuring only 230 by 100 feet (70 by 30 meters)—it prioritized ornate decoration over sheer size. While not the largest at Saqqara, it ranked among the most elaborately adorned.
Like Userkaf’s, Unas’s pyramid appears unimpressive externally, resembling a modest hill rather than a magnificent royal tomb. Inside tells a different story. When first entered in 1881, it yielded a groundbreaking discovery.
Gaston Maspero, the first to explore the interior, discovered walls covered in what we now call pyramid texts—the earliest known religious inscriptions of their kind. The burial chamber contained fragmentary mummy remains: a skull, right shin, and right arm. Their poor condition makes it impossible to confirm whether they belong to Unas himself.
The pyramid inscriptions at the Pyramid of Unas at Saqqara necropolis, the first known to have these decorations (EvrenKalinbacak / Adobe Stock)
The Sixth Dynasty witnessed shifting power dynamics. During Teti’s reign, officials began constructing funerary monuments rivaling their pharaoh’s in splendor. Teti’s pyramid sits amid tombs of his courtiers that match or exceed his own in grandeur. His chancellor Mereruka, for example, built a massive mastaba featuring 32 richly decorated rooms.
Externally, Teti’s pyramid has suffered considerably, appearing as little more than a small hill. Fortunately, the interior remains well-preserved, with elegantly decorated corridors offering historians invaluable glimpses into the past.
The 32 room mastaba of vizier Mereruka rivalled Pharoah Teti’s monument in size and grandeur, and is better preserved than his master’s tomb today (Prof. Mortel / CC BY SA 3.0)
Pepi II‘s exceptionally long reign is reflected in his extensive funerary complex. His pyramid, originally approximately 255 feet (78 meters) high, now stands only 164 feet (50 meters) due to construction weaknesses.
The pyramid forms just one element of a vast complex surrounded by the pyramids of three wives: Neith to the north, Iput II to the northwest, and Udjebten to the southeast, each with its own mortuary facilities.
As Pepi’s reign neared its end and his kingdom declined, his fourth wife received less favorable treatment—buried in a storeroom within Iput’s mortuary chapel rather than receiving her own pyramid. Similarly, Prince Ptahshepses, Pepi’s son, was interred in Unas’s funerary complex without even a personal sarcophagus, using instead a Fourth Dynasty one.
While Pepi II’s pyramid exterior disappoints, the interior compensates. Following his predecessors’ example, Pepi emphasized decoration. His burial chamber ceiling features star patterns, and walls bear extensive pyramid texts. Of the approximately 800 pyramid texts discovered to date, Pepi’s chamber contains 675.
These magical spells intended to protect the deceased apparently failed—the large black sarcophagus at the chamber’s center stood empty when discovered in 1926.
Pharoah Pepi’s Sixth Dynasty tomb contains the majority of the pyramid texts discovered so far. The inscriptions describe the formula for the ascent of the king to heaven and for his eternal supply of food and drink. (Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin / CC BY SA 4.0)
Saqqara experienced reduced prominence during the Middle Kingdom. With Memphis no longer serving as Egypt’s capital, pharaohs chose alternative locations for their tombs. Consequently, far fewer private monuments were constructed compared to the Old Kingdom.
Only two pyramids date to this period: King Khendjer’s (Thirteenth Dynasty) and one belonging to an unknown ruler. Khendjer’s pyramid originally stood a modest 121 feet (37 meters) but lies completely ruined today. It remains the only pyramid known to have been completed during the Thirteenth Dynasty.
The Pyramid of Khendjer is the only pyramid known to be completed in the Thirteenth Dynasty. Although it’s ruins today, archaeologists have reconstructed its plans (Monnier Franck / CC BY SA 3.0)
Saqqara experienced renewed importance during the New Kingdom. Following the Amarna period, Memphis regained status as capital and became a crucial military and administrative center. From the Eighteenth Dynasty onward, Saqqara hosted tombs of numerous high officials.
Before ascending to the throne, Horemheb—then a high-ranking general—constructed an elaborate tomb at Saqqara, though he was ultimately buried in the Valley of the Kings after becoming pharaoh.
Other significant New Kingdom tombs include those of viziers Aperel and Nerronpetm, the artist Thutmose, and Maia, Tutankhamun’s royal wet nurse.
By this time, Saqqara’s older monuments, while still standing, had deteriorated considerably. Prince Khaemweset, son of Ramesses II, undertook restoration efforts, repairing the Pyramid of Unas and adding an inscription to its south face documenting his conservation work.
Mural from the tomb of Horemheb, at Saqqara
In subsequent periods, Egypt’s capital shifted between various cities, but Saqqara maintained its importance as a noble burial ground. It also evolved into a major religious center and pilgrimage destination for those visiting cult sites.
Vast underground galleries were carved into bedrock, housing mummified remains of baboons, cats, dogs, and falcons. In essence, Saqqara transformed from primarily a royal necropolis into a significant religious sanctuary.
Comprehending Saqqara’s full magnitudes proves challenging. With origins stretching to the Egyptian empire’s earliest days, its historical significance cannot be exaggerated.
Even in the 21st century, Egyptologists continue making remarkable discoveries at the site. Far from being merely a cemetery, Saqqara functioned as an economic and spiritual hub. The site stands as testament to ancient Egypt’s obsession with defeating death and achieving eternal life. That so many of these ancient monuments endure, still capable of teaching us about the past, remains truly extraordinary.
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